9 Respirable DPM is now an emerging concern in the mining workplace, and it is also of concern in domestic and industrial sites. Diesel particulate matter has toxic effects on the lungs, heart, kidney, placenta, brain and liver. 11 The unique nature of the diesel particulates, with a large surface area able to further absorb toxins, mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, increases its likelihood of carcinogenesis. 13 Diesel particulate matter is considered by the IARCto be a group 1 human carcinogen. In the early twentieth century, preclinical trials associated DPM with carcinogenic chemicals in mice, rats and hamsters, and human studies have shown similar results. Diesel particulate matter consists of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, ash, metallic abrasion particles, sulfates and silicates. 10Ībbreviations DPM Diesel particulate matter MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration PEL Permissible exposure limit SD Standard deviation SEGs Sampled exposure groupsĭiesel particulate matter Mine Safety and Health Administration Permissible exposure limit Standard deviation Sampled exposure groups Diesel particulate matter (DPM) is another composite toxicant released during mining activities which poses health risks to workers. Respirable crystalline silica not only causes pneumoconiosis, but also predisposes individuals to infectious diseases such as tuberculosis. 11, 12 The consequences of exposure are prevalent in most ex-miners owing to chronic and acute toxicity effects after long latency periods. 9, 10 The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies silica as a potential human carcinogen. 8 Exposure to respirable crystalline silica poses a significant problem, especially with regards to respiratory, renal, connective tissue, and malignant diseases. 7 The toxico-dynamics of inhaled silica are predominantly due to the reactive oxygen species mediating lipid peroxidation and genotoxicity among other aberrations. Inhaled respirable crystalline silica is often the limiting factor in developing lung diseases associated with occupational inhalational dusts, such as pneumoconiosis or associated malignancies. 6 Respirable dust has been defined as particles that penetrate into the gas exchange region of the lungs with particulate size less than 5 μ. The former is responsible for almost all of the harmful effects of silica owing to its ubiquitous nature, stability, aqueous insolubility and the presence of reactive oxygen species on its surface. 3 Silica exists in two forms, crystalline and non-crystalline. The main composition of respirable dust generated from quartz ore gold mines is crystalline silica, which has been implicated as the main toxicant in the pathogenesis of diseases within the mining field. The studied gold mine was therefore under the supervision of these laws. However, currently, internationally best practices in mining are adopted for use and supplemented with by-laws from the Inspectorate Division of the Minerals Commission for the regulation of formalized mines in Ghana. When put into place, it will help develop local exposure threshold limits, and enhance more stringent workplace protection in the management systems of mining industries. This bill is expected to help develop additional health and safety standards that suit local scenarios. 2 In Ghana, there are ongoing processes to officially formalize an Occupational Health bill. The risk of developing disease from exposure to mining activities depends on the degree of inhaled dusts, duration of exposure, particulate size, ventilation and individual factors. 5 Air and noise pollution remain the most common hazards, owing to persistent excavating, drilling, bogging, crushing and hauling at the mining sites. 4 The occurrence of mining hazards compares poorly to other well-established sectors such as manufacturing, rails and road construction. These hazards can be in the form of occupational injuries and/or ill health resulting directly from mining activities or their sequelae. 3 The present study focuses on the legal gold mining sector in Ghana and the hazards it presents to human health. 2 The former are well-controlled with regulations and safety measures in place for workers depending on their level of exposure to toxicants, whereas the latter remain anonymous owing to the illegality of their operations. The profitability of this sector has resulted in the growth of both legal and illegal mining companies. 1 In Ghana, metals are the primary mined natural resource the main extract is gold, followed by manganese and bauxite. The mining industry serves as an economic driving force for countries with untapped natural resources.
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